Planning Theory since 1945 “Paradigm Shifts”

Planning theory post 1945 has undergone mass theoretical change as the emerging profession has adapted to significant population growth and globalisation. Nigel Taylor’s article “Town Planning Theory Since 1945” explores these new ways of thinking whilst distinguishing if these shifts in theory can be defined as paradigms, a term first devised by scientific theorist Thomas Kuhn. Kuhn defined paradigms as revolutionary theories that constitute peoples view of certain aspects of the world. These proven theories tend to last for centuries until scientific advancement can prove otherwise and new paradigms are developed.

In terms of post-World War One and Two planning there have been three identifiable shifts that have reshaped planning theory worldwide and are therefore often labelled and debated as Kuhnian paradigm shifts. Below the three major shifts will are discussed and there claim as a paradigm shift will be analysed and concluded:

1)      Planning post World Wars was viewed solely as a subset of Architecture that had no scientific merit that focused only on the physical design and morphological view of towns. This ideal of a town planner shifted however in the early 1960’s as their role shifted from the aesthetic and physical design of towns to a more inter- related role that considered the economic, environmental and social functions of the society. This shift although prominent in the profession of planning is not considered a paradigm shift as the physical design element of a city although less prominent is still an important part in planning today.

2)      The presumption that a town planner was a specialist who had an expertise in his field such as urban design was another shift in thought. This notion changed in the 1970’s and 1980’s were the town planners role was viewed as not a specialist but a as facilitator whom mediated people’s views about how a town should be planned. This is not a considered paradigm shift as many planners these days specialise in certain aspects of planning e.g. traffic planner and economic planner.

3)       The emergence of postmodernist’s who opposed modern planning ideals is another proposed modern paradigm. This is where former planning principals such as the Garden City Movement where opposed to a postmodern view of complexity, diversity and their belief that there is an individual preference and ideal for everyone not one generic planning practice. This again however is not seen as a paradigm as many aspects of modern planning are still implemented in post-modern and current planning.

In general these movements are more appropriately the process of the professions growth from its old conceptions rather than complete paradigm shifts.

Modernism and Early Urban Planning

The revelation of the Industrial revolution in the late 18^th and early 19^th century was a defining point not only in the progression of the profession of planning but highlighted a shift in lifestyle for most western cultures. The result of such a shift was the emergence of large scale factories dominating inner city suburbs which consequently lead to the mass influx of immigrants and rural dwellers into the city creating instant problems of overcrowding housing, poor health, poverty and the emergence of the iconic inner city working class slums.

To combat industrial urbanism movements such as the Parks Movement lead by Frederick Law Olmsted and the Garden City movement lead by Ebenezer Howard were introduced in the late 18^th and early 19^th centuries to provide the congested cities with “lungs”. This notion lead to the development of mass amounts of parkland, tree lined boulevards and open space in inner cities to provide healthy outlets for the cities poor and Central Park in New York is a key successful example of these initiatives.

In the 1890’s however the trend shifted as the City Beautiful movement lead by Daniel Burnham took over with focus on the structural aesthetics of the city taking priority over parklands with grand buildings and designs a sign of wealth and prosperity as seen in Chicago’s transformation in 1893.

 

The next major two shifts in early planning showed similarities to modern day planning and evolved out of the emergence of reliable transportation which allowed residents to sprawl away from inner cities regions and live in small cities yet still within the region. This idea by Lewis Mumford allowed for the modernism of Le Corbusier who proposed and implemented the use of skyscrapers to save space and deal with the booming post war populations.

All these initiatives which have occurred between 1870 - 1940 have shaped the planning profession and urban life as we know it and the fact that these major shifts happened during two world wars and a depression is a monument to the early planners of the century

How Plan's Work

What are plans? How do they Work? Plans are the framework that control and guide development and growth. Plans give direction and formulate strategies to meet the potential of any given community’s needs. In Lewis D. Hopkins article The Logic of Making Plans, the structure behind a plan and the assessment of a plans success is evaluated as well as the plans relationship with regulations. Plans have 5 different mechanisms that shape its purpose and structure. All plans strive to have the follow mechanisms however it must be noted that not all plans contain each of the following factors:

1)      Agenda - a tool that helps focus the attention on what the task is at hand.

2)      Policy - a consistent decision making process.

3)      Visions - an image of what the final outcome should be.

4)       Designs -  a specific final outcome of a particular project

5)       Strategies - a decision process that chooses which desired path of planning to choose for the present and the future.

Regulations are also a major aspect of a plan as they are legal provisions that implement the desired intention of a plan. For example zoning regulations can prevent industrial buildings being constructed in certain areas which would be a factor in a city’s overall plan and therefore part of how plans work.

A plans success is often extremely hard to measure as differing people benefit from the plans aims in different ways. However there is a general formula of measuring a plans overall success.  The effect is one method which is measured by analysing if the intended outcomes were achieved.  The net benefit is another method which is hard to distinguish but is positive if the estimated benefits of the plan out way the costs. Then there is internal and external validity which consider one if the plan fulfilled the logic of how it was meant to work and two did the plan benefit those who need help e.g. bridge the gap between poverty and create equity. In all, plans follow and attempt to incorporate 5 basic principles that determine its focus for bettering communities. This focus can than although sometimes difficult be measured using the 4 principals mentioned above which can classify the success of a plan.

The Art of Planning

The Planning profession although relatively short in time has undergone mass change since the 1930’s to the present as it has had to adapt to the physical and technological growth of an ever changing  world and demanding societies. In Birch’s article Practitioners and the Art of Planning, the phrase, “The Art of Planning” in which art is defined as design (physical planning), craft (techniques and methods) and presentation (personal skills and attributes) is what distinguishes planning from any other fields or professions. It gives planning its identity which throughout the evolution of society has changed from a profession that only looked at the physical side of a town with no input from the public to a respected profession which incorporates the professions of architecture, economics and environmental science whilst mediating for a sustainable environmental, economic and sociable society. Such change and adaption has been documented in different volumes of the planners “Green Book” since the 1940’s with Cincinnati planner Ladislas Segoe's initial edition containing only information on the technical side of planning which involved diagnosing physical planning problems and then finding solutions. The next substantial transition which again is highlighted in the Green Book is in the 1960’s and 1970’s where industrial restructuring and edge city growth (suburbanisation) began to blossom which lead to planning focus and initiatives such as urban renewal and decentralisation. The 1980’s, 1990’s until present was another major planning transition which lead to more specific specialisations in the profession that focused on environmental planning, urban design, transportation, economic development, advocacy and political policies. As you can see overtime the art of planning which is the design, craft and presentation has adapted throughout various transitions throughout the century to meet the needs of society and create sustainable communities. These days planning is a complicated mix and balance of social, economic and environmental issues that need to be dealt with whilst still meeting the needs of the current communities and future generations.  

Introduction

Planning plays a pivotal role in creating live-able communities, vibrant economies, sustainable places and diverse cultures. This planning blog is designed to explore these aspects and the history of the profession of Planning with reference to articles from Eugenie. L. Birch’s The Urban and Regional Planning Reader. Each week a variety of readings and topics will be summarized, discussed and open for opinion and scrutiny for you the public. Explore, take in and enjoy!